Amyloidosis

What sample is needed for the diagnosis of Amyloidosis?

1. Gingiva: The gingival biopsy is positive in one-half to two-thirds of the cases.
2. Rectum: The rectal biopsy is also positive in two-thirds of the cases.
3. Kidney: A needle biopsy of the kidney is needed when gingival and rectal biopsies are not helpful.
4. Skin: The skin biopsy may also be the site for amyloidosis diagnosis.
5. Other sites depend upon the involvement of other organs like the GIT, spleen, and respiratory tract.
6. Serum and urine will show a monoclonal band on electrophoresis.

How would you define Amyloidosis?

1. Amyloidosis is a disorder of protein metabolism in which the extracellular deposition of pathologic insoluble fibrillary proteins in organs and tissues is present.
2. Amyloidosis is the accumulation of various insoluble fibrillary proteins between the tissue cells and gives rise to the loss of the function of that organ.
3. The fibrils generally represent proteolytic fragments of various plasma proteins and possess the structure of a β-pleated sheet.
4. These β-pleated sheets are insoluble and resistant to proteolysis.
5. The term amyloidosis is a misnomer, as it was originally thought that fibrils are starch-like.
6. Its affinity with Congo red is the basis of its definition and identification in the biopsy material.

What are the causes of Amyloidosis?

1. Leprosy in 1/3 of the cases.
2. Chronic infections like osteomyelitis and tuberculosis. Etc.
3. Multiple myelomas.
4. Other malignancies like renal cell carcinoma and lymphomas.

How would you discuss the pathophysiology of Amyloidosis?

1. Amyloid is a Greek word resembling starch because it stains with iodine and other dyes.
2. Amyloidosis is a rare disease that occurs when a substance called amyloid (folded protein) builds up in various organs.
3. The most common precursor proteins are immunoglobulin light chains.
4. Amyloid is a pathological extracellular deposit that appears structureless and translucent.
5. It stains with iodine and various dyes.
   1. Under polarized light, amyloid with Congo red shows apple-green fluorescence.
6. Amyloid exerts pressure on the vital organs and lead to death.
7.  Amyloid is an abnormal protein usually produced in bone marrow, an insoluble protein, and can be deposited in any tissue or organ.
   1. Amyloidosis is usually seen in the heart, liver, spleen, kidney, nervous, and gastrointestinal systems.
8. Amyloid is an extracellular deposit of the amyloid protein.
   1. Hematoxylin and eosine stains show amyloid as amorphous, eosinophilic, hyaline extracellular substances.
   2. It encroaches on the adjacent cells and leads to atrophy of the surrounding cells.
   3. This is not a single disease; rather, it is a group of diseases that share the deposition of similar-appearing proteins.

What is the biochemistry of the amyloid?

1. Amyloid is an insoluble protein resistant to normal proteolysis due to its β- conformation.
2. The above feature is common to all types of amyloid, whatever their composition.
3. Amyloid fibrils may have multiple soluble plasma protein precursors modified by proteolysis to make them insoluble.
4. The end result of this insoluble amyloid is the disease called amyloidosis.
5. This deposit may be local or systemic.
   1. This amyloid material exerts local pressure, resulting in the tissue’s death.

What is the structure of the amyloid?

1. Amyloids are nonbranching fibrils 7.5 to 10 nm in width by electron microscopy.
2. The Electron microscopic picture shows:
   1. Two fibrillary components with characteristic periodicity.

1. 2. One rod-like structure P-component is a glycoprotein on their head.

How would you describe the Amyloid E/M structure?

1. This has a hollow core and is a pentamer.

2. These fibrillary components are crossed β-pleated sheets, seen by X-ray crystallography.
3. Any fibrillar proteins deposited in the tissue that look like β-pleated sheets are amyloid.
4. 95% of the amyloid is fibril proteins, and the rest 5% consists of P components or glycoproteins.

What is the chemical nature of the Amyloid?

1. There are roughly 15 amyloid proteins, three of which are very common.
2. Amyloid light chains (AL):
   1. These are derived from plasma cells and consist of immunoglobulin light chains.
   2. This may be light chain κ or λ.
   3. This is seen in plasma cell neoplasm, lymphomas, cardiomyopathy, macroglossia, and hepatosplenomegaly.
3. Amyloid-associated amyloid (AA):
   1. These are non-immunoglobulin proteins synthesized by the liver.
   2. This is also called serum amyloid-A protein (SAA).
   3. This is secondary amyloidosis. This is seen in the following conditions:
      1. Chronic diseases like tuberculosis, bronchiectasis, Crohn’s disease,  nephrotic syndrome, cardiomyopathy, and rheumatoid arthritis.
4. αβ amyloid is a β-precursor protein and is found in:
   1. Patients with Alzheimer’s disease.
   2. Type 2 diabetes.
5. β_2 ^–Microglobulin amyloid  is β2 ^–Microglobulin and is found in:
   1. 1. Renal failure.
      2. Musculoskeletal diseases.
      3. Long-term hemodialysis.
6. ATTR amyloid is transthyretin. It is found in the following conditions:
   1. Neuropathy.
   2. Cardiomyopathy.
   3. Senile amyloidosis with cardiomyopathy.

How will you classify Amyloidosis according to etiology?

1. Primary Amyloidosis:

1. It comprises a portion of the light chain called immunoglobulin light chain (AL) amyloidosis.
   1. This is produced spontaneously from plasma cells and may be seen in bone marrow cancers like Multiple myelomas.
2. Amyloidosis is associated with multiple myeloma.
3. These two types are associated with increased plasma cells (Plasmacytosis).
4. The monoclonal proliferation of the cells results in two identical light chains known as AL amyloid.
5. This primary amyloidosis is derived from the variable region of the immunoglobulin’s light chains, and the most common is lambda (λ).

2. Amyloidosis is associated with multiple myeloma:

1. Groups 1 and 2 are associated with plasmacytosis in the bone marrow, and these will produce an excess of the light chain of the immunoglobulins called AL amyloidosis.
2. Multiple myeloma is associated with 20% to 30% of the cases.
3. Electrophoresis shows the monoclonal peak in serum and urine in 50% of the cases.
4. Immunoelectrophoresis is positive in the serum and urine in about 90% of the cases.

3. Secondary Amyloidosis (Reactive systemic):

1. It results from chronic illnesses like tuberculosis, osteomyelitis, or other chronic inflammatory diseases like rheumatoid arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis.
2. This is called secondary amyloidosis or AA amyloidosis.
   1. AA protein is an amino-terminal fragment of serum amyloid A  protein with a molecular weight of 220 to 235 kDa. It forms a complex with HDL and circulates in the blood.
   2. AA amyloid is an acute-phase protein that increases rapidly in infectious or noninfectious inflammation.
   3. These are associated with chronic inflammatory diseases.
3. Rheumatoid arthritis has an incidence of 20% and Other inflammatory joint diseases.
4. AA is also deposited in chronic suppurative and granulomatous diseases (TB, osteomyelitis).
5. Deposits of AA amyloid most frequently occur in the kidney, liver, and spleen.
6. AA may deposit in non-lymphoid tumors like renal and gastric carcinoma. This is also found in Hodgkin’s lymphoma.
7. There may be nephrotic syndrome and hepatosplenomegaly.

4. Aging (senile amyloidosis):

1. Amyloidosis is associated with the aging process.
2. This is also called senile amyloidosis, and most often, the heart is involved, which is called senile cardiac amyloidosis.
3. This may also be found in the pancreas and brain.
4. Nodular or infiltrative amyloid deposits are seen in the skin, lungs, trachea, and endocrine organs (thyroid medullary carcinoma) and long-standing diabetics (pancreas).
5. These patients are usually asymptomatic except for the cardiac form.

5. Familial Amyloidosis:

1. These are autosomally dominant transmitted diseases where the mutant protein forms amyloid fibrils, usually starting in middle age.
2. The most common form is a mutant – transthyretin, a tetrameric protein with four identical subunits.
3. This is a transport protein for thyroxine and retinol-binding protein, and it is mainly synthesized in the liver.
4. It can cause amyloid polyneuropathy or cardiomyopathy. It can involve the kidneys and blood vessels.

How will you classi5fy Amyloidosis according to clinical presentation?

1. Amyloidosis may be:
2. Generalized or systemic: Multiple organs are involved.
   1. Primary amyloidosis occurs when there is a disturbance in the immune system.
      1. Seen in multiple myeloma and monoclonal B-cell proliferation.
   2. Secondary amyloidosis is when the cause is a chronic inflammatory disease.
      1. Reactive systemic amyloidosis.
3. Localized: In this type, only one organ is involved, like amyloidosis of the heart.
   1. Senile cerebral changes were seen in Alzheimer’s disease.
   2. In medullary carcinoma of the thyroid (endocrine).
   3. Islets of Langerhans (endocrine).
   4. Isolated atrial amyloidosis.
4. Hereditary or familial amyloidosis is a separate group with a different pattern of organ involvement.
   1. Familial Mediterranean fever.
   2. Familial amyloidotic neuropathies.
5. Senile systemic amyloidosis. This is often found in the heart and is called senile cardiac amyloid. This may also be seen in the brain and pancreas.
   1. Nodular or infiltrative amyloid deposits may be seen in the skin, lungs, and trachea.
   2. It may be seen in long-standing diabetes mellitus in the pancreas.
   3. It may be seen in the thyroid in the case of medullary carcinoma.
      1. 1. These forms are asymptomatic except for the heart.

Another classification of Amyloidosis:

1. Reactive (secondary) amyloidosis.
2. Nodular deposits.
3. Light chain (primary) amyloidosis.
4. Hereditary amyloidosis.
5. Endocrine amyloidosis.
6. Cerebral amyloidosis.
7. Cardiac amyloidosis.
8. Hemodialysis-associated amyloidosis.
9. Other types.

How would you discuss signs and symptoms of Amyloidosis?

1. Except for the familial type of amyloidosis, it is seen in older patients with an average age of 60 years.
2. These depend upon the organ involved.
3. There are severe fatigue and weakness.
4. There is a shortness of breath.
5. There may be diarrhea with blood, and sometimes there is constipation.
6. There may be swelling of the ankles and legs.
7. The skin may show thickening or easy bruising and patches around the eyes.
8. The most commonly involved organs are the Kidneys and the heart.
9. There may be an irregular heartbeat.
10. The patient may develop difficulty in swallowing.
11. Kidney involvement leads to nephrotic syndrome. There may or may not be raised creatinine and blood urea.
12. The kidney is involved in 90% to 96 % of the cases with the amyloid type of AA.
13. Immunoglobulin light-chain associated (AL) Amyloidosis associated organs involvement:
    1. This primary amyloidosis gives the S/S of the organ involved.
    2. Kidneys’ involvement will show proteinuria and nephrotic syndrome.
    3. The cardiovascular system shows cardiac failure.
    4. Carpal tunnel syndrome with weakness and paresthesia of the hands may be an early feature.
    5. Sensory neuropathies are common.
    6. Physical examination shows hepatomegaly, rarely splenomegaly, cardiomyopathy, polyneuropathy, and bruising may be seen.
    7. Macroglossia may be seen in 20% of the cases.
14. Familial transthyretin-associated amyloidosis (ATTR):
    1. There is peripheral sensorimotor and autonomic neuropathy, and it is more common with symptoms of diarrhea and weight loss.
    2. Macroglossia is not seen in this type.
    3. Cardiac dysfunction is of conduction.
15. Reactive or secondary (AA) amyloidosis:
    1. This is usually due to chronic inflammatory conditions like rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and untreated Mediterranean fever.
    2. It has been seen in patients with tuberculosis, bronchiectasis, and osteomyelitis in developed countries.
16. Local amyloidosis: Amyloid fibrils are locally deposited in various organs, such as the skin, heart, and brain.
17. Cerebral amyloidosis: Intracerebral and cerebrovascular amyloid deposits are seen in Alzheimer’s disease.
    1. In hereditary spongiform encephalopathies, several cerebral amyloid plaques are seen.

What are the risk factors leading to amyloidosis?

1. Age: The most common age group involved is people 50 or older, except for the younger age group.
2. Family history: Some amyloidosis is hereditary.
3. Sex: The majority of the patients are male.
4. Dialysis: This also leads the patients to amyloidosis.
5. Chronic diseases: It will also predispose to amyloidosis.

What are the complications of amyloidosis?

1. The kidney, when involved, will ultimately lead to renal failure.
   1. Kidney size may be normal or enlarged.
   2. Amyloid deposits in the glomeruli.
   3. Amyloidosis is also seen in the interstitium and the wall of blood vessels.

2. The cardiovascular system leads to heart failure and arrhythmias.
   1. The heart size may increase from minimum to moderate enlargement.
   2. Amyloid deposits are found in the myocardium.
3. The spleen may be enlarged moderately to a large size.
   1. Amyloid deposit is limited to splenic follicles and gives a sago spleen appearance.
4.  Liver amyloidosis causes massive enlargement.
   1.  The amyloid deposit first appears in the space of Disse.
   2. Later on, it encroaches on the adjacent liver parenchyma.
   3. The late stages involve the sinusoids.
5. The central nervous system leads to various complications, such as diarrhea, constipation, numbness of the fingers, and dizziness.

How will you diagnose Amyloidosis?

1. Take a biopsy from the clinically affected tissue.
2. Congo-red test: Congo-red binds the amyloid and gives apple-green fluorescence under polarized light.
   1. This test is positive in one-third of the primary amyloidosis and about two-thirds of the secondary amyloidosis of patients.
3. Fat aspiration from the subcutaneous tissue showed positivity in 75% of the cases.
   1. 85% positive in the AL amyloidosis from the abdominal subcutaneous fatty tissue.
4. Gingival and rectal biopsy is positive in one-half to two-thirds of patients.
5. In the case of kidney involvement, a needle biopsy of the kidney is needed.
6. Bone biopsy is positive in 30% of the multiple myeloma cases.
7. Liver needle biopsy may be positive.
8. In case of skin involvement, take a biopsy from the plaques.
9. A biopsy of the carpal tunnel tissue in carpal tunnel syndrome is positive in 90% of cases.
10. The biopsy may be taken from the GIT, spleen, and respiratory system.
11. Immunohistochemical staining shows the reaction of fibrils with Kappa (κ) or lambda (λ) antisera.
12. E/M is the most specific for the diagnosis of amyloidosis.
13. Bone marrow may show increased plasma cells in primary amyloidosis or lymphoproliferative disorders.
14. Urine may show proteinuria and light chains in AL amyloidosis.
15. There may be paraproteinemia.
16. Scintigraphy using the ¹²³I-labelled serum amyloid P component is useful for diagnosing AL, ATTR, and AA amyloidosis. However, this test is not available in most labs.

How will you treat Amyloidosis?

1. There is no definite treatment or cure for amyloidosis.
2. However, treatment can limit the production of amyloid protein.
3. There is a symptomatic treatment for Nephrotic syndrome and cardiac failure.
4. Colchicine may be helpful for familial Mediterranean fever.
5. Chemotherapy may show some benefits in AL amyloidosis.

What is the prognosis of Amyloidosis?

1. It depends upon the type of amyloidosis and the organ involved.
2. In generalized amyloidosis, the prognosis is poor, with mean survival after diagnosis of 1 to 3 years.
3. Microscopic and focal deposits in older people are of no clinical significance.
4. Widespread deposits are progressive and fatal.
5. AL Amyloid patients with cardiac involvement have a worse prognosis; in untreated cases, the survival is less than one year.
6. AA amyloid patients survive 2 to 4 years.
7. ATTR amyloid patients survive for 15 years.
8. For patients with multiple myeloma-associated amyloidoses, the prognosis is poor.
9. Treatment is aimed at:
   1. Reducing the supply of precursor protein.
   2. Treat the bleeding problem.
   3. Increase motility.

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